History
Shia say that on June 8, AD 632, as Muhammad lay dying, he called for pen and paper to appoint Ali, his cousin and son-in-law, as his successor. Ali was his closest companion, but most importantly, he had the Prophet’s blood in his veins. Yet, hypocrites suppressed this evidence and kept Ali back (Shia means “partisans of Ali”). Sunnis, on the other hand, maintain that Muhammad deliberately did not appoint a successor. They argue that the leader should be the one best qualified for the job and that this decision should be made by consensus. Later, Ali did become caliph, but faced strong opposition. He put down a rebellion in AD 656, but was assassinated four years later. His son (Hussein) tried to resist, but it ended in disaster. In AD 680, he was defeated by a much larger army in the Battle of Karbala. Hussein was beheaded, and his seventy supporters (family and companions) were mostly killed, including an infant son. During the final three days of battle, his tiny band was even denied water. These tragic events set the stage for future Sunni-Shia relations.
Who is Ali
The all-important name for Shia is Ali ibn Abi Talib. For Sunnis, he was simply the 4th Caliph, but for Shia, Ali was the first Imam and holds a special place in their hearts. For instance, in the northern town of Mazar-i-Sharif, Afghanistan, there is the blue mosque, believed to be the burial place of Hazrat Ali. It is a large mausoleum and sometimes targeted against Shia in a Sunni-dominated environment, especially by the Taliban. Other Shia insist he was buried in the Imam Ali Mosque in Najaf, Iraq. This demonstrates the immense love and reverence he is held in by Shia all over the world. After Muhammad, he is the infallible source of religious guidance and free from all sin.
Sunni-Shia Comparisons
Sunnis and Shia agree on Muhammad’s veneration as “Seal of the Prophets.” They agree on the five pillars of Islam, although Shia combine five prayers into three (two afternoon prayers are combined into one, and two evening prayers are also merged). They add a line to the prayer, “Ya Ali” (Oh Ali), and typically let their hands hang down by their sides during prayer, whereas Sunnis place the right hand over the left. They agree on Ramadan and almsgiving. They agree that God previously sent prophets and holy books, and that salvation is earned by good works; they agree on eschatology (in principle). However, they have different interpretations and applications of Islamic Law, especially on marriage and divorce; they also disagree on who should lead the community: Sunnis say caliphs and Shia say imams; they disagree on how the Mahdi will rid the world of evil; they disagree on how best to interpret the Qur’an: Shia say it has both literal and hidden meanings, whereas Sunnis are strict literalists; they recognize different Hadiths (traditions); Shia practice Mut’ah (temporary marriages) which Sunnis consider haram (forbidden). Finally, Sunni and Shia agree on the Qur’anic text, but disagree on how it was compiled and how to interpret it.
Justice and Leadership
While Ali was caliph (AD 656-661), he ordered his general in Egypt to treat conquered Orthodox Coptic Christians with respect. He even called them brothers in religion and equal before God. And he told the general to provide the poor and deprived with food and shelter. Even by Sunnis, he is renowned for his kindness and justice (adl). Since the Christian Byzantine Empire was known for oppression and favoritism, conquering Muslim armies were welcomed by the people. Today, Shia are becoming disillusioned by what they perceive as cruel and unjust imams, and they long for the Madhi to come and restore justice. The harshness of Imam Khomeini is a major reason Iranians are increasingly turning to Christ.
The Imamate
For Sunnis, an imam simply gives the prayer call (Adhan) five times a day, but for Shia, the imam has political and religious authority. This is based on verses in the Qur’an, like 22:54: “Guide of those who believe,” or 1:6: “Show us the straight path.” This verse is interpreted as a prayer to infallible imams for guidance. The imam is not a prophet, but a leader of the community who must be obeyed. People in Iran may elect political leaders, but the imams are in charge. Ali was the first imam in a line of twelve, but the 12th has gone into hiding to avoid persecution—until God brings him out of occultation. One wonders, however, if the system of governance by Twelvers is a good leadership model for Shia. Notably, Ismailis, a smaller sect, have a living imam.
Islamic Law
Waliyyat al-faqih suggests that in the absence of the 12th imam, righteous jurists have custodianship over the religious and social affairs of the Muslim community. Prior to the time of Imam Khomeini, this meant that the rights and interests of the most vulnerable, such as widows, should be protected. However, Khomeini expanded this concept to encompass clerical rule over the entire state. He wanted to establish an Islamic government (in the absence of the Hidden Imam) and to prepare for the coming Mahdi. Therefore, Iranian jurists retain the power of custodianship during the 12th imam’s occultation. They maintain that everything in the state must align with Islamic Law (including politics and jurisprudence). And the state must be protected from anti-Islamic influence. It is a top-down system of rule with leadership of the community in the hands of a chosen few; it is a bridge until the 12th imam emerges from his ghayba (hiddenness).
Branches of Shia
Twelvers are called Ithna Ashariyyah (number twelve in Arabic) and believe in twelve imams (12th imam went into hiding in AD 874). They make up at least 85 percent of Shia globally, and 90-95 percent in Iran. The next branch is the Zaydis (Fivers), who only recognize the first five imams. They reside mostly in Yemen, and historically, have been resistant to Sunni domination, so they are more persecuted. It is estimated that 30-35 percent of Zaydis support the rebel Houthi movement in Yemen. The third branch is called the Seveners (Ismailis) because they adhere to seven imams, and most reside in the Indian subcontinent and Central Asia. Under the Fatimids, the Ismailis had a powerful dynasty in Egypt (AD 969-1171) and generally treated Christians well. In AD 970, they founded Al-Azhar University in Cairo, which remains Islam’s intellectual center. Today, Aga Khan V (in Switzerland) is the 50th hereditary imam and a very wealthy man. This branch is quite pluralistic and is currently building a large center in Texas.
Ashura
During the entire month of Muharram (the first month of the Islamic calendar), Shia mourn the death of Hussein, but it climaxes on the 10th (Ashura means ten in Arabic). The rituals they use to express this anguish may result in clashes with Sunni Muslims. For instance, Sunnis might say, “You can take out a procession, but when passing our mosque, go respectfully and quietly.” This, however, incites the Shia to express their anguish and deep grief even more loudly over Hussein’s tragic death. They beat their chests and whip their bodies with chains, and blood flows freely. Shia have re-lived this collective anguish year after year for centuries. Sunnis view such demonstrations as an excessive show or a spectacle, and their disdain injures Shia sentiment even more. Only Twelvers observe Ashura.
Persecuted Minority
Shia and Sunni live side-by-side, but tensions have always existed, and there is no love lost between countries like Saudi Arabia (Sunni) and Iran (Shia). Sunnis often consider the Shia as heretics or non-Muslim. For example, a Shia friend told me that in his family, it is better to marry an atheist—even a Christian, but never a Sunni. Moreover, extremist Sunni groups (like ISIS) routinely use religion to justify persecuting Shia. For this reason, Shia have sometimes used taqiyya (the principle of hiding one’s faith to avoid suffering). The Ismailis have practiced this more than the Zaidis. Contrary to common perception in the West, taqiyya is not a habit Muslims use to hide their faith until they can take over. Finally, through their suffering, Shia have had imams to give guidance and encourage quietism.
The Mahdi
A messianic figure is prophesied to return at the end of the world, who will establish a global Islamic kingdom. The “Guided One” is pivotal in Islamic eschatology, who will restore pure religion and establish a perfect religio-political system. Good will finally triumph over evil. All Muslims believe in him and yearn for a savior, but for Twelvers, it is foundational and central to their theology: He will restore peace and justice for them as an oppressed minority. Moreover, the sects differ as to his identity: Shia say he is Muhammad al-Mahdi (son of the 11th imam, Hasan al-Askari), who went into hiding in AD 874; Sunnis say the Mahdi has not yet been born, but when he comes, it will be from the line of Muhammad, through his daughter Fatima and husband, Ali. He will be the ultimate Caliph. There are widely held beliefs (based on authorized Hadiths) that his coming will coincide with the coming of Isa ibn Maryam (Jesus, Son of Mary). The Qur’an clearly teaches that Jesus’ return is imminent (4:159; 43:61), but various interpretations exist as to how his coming is linked to the Mahdi.
